Research Traditions I

Before you move on to work on your research design, it is necessary to be clear about some basic concepts. Work in groups to see if you can work out a simple definition of each of the following terms.

在你着手研究设计之前，有必要弄清楚一些基本概念。小组合作，看看你是否能对以下每个术语做出一个简单的定义。

Methodology 方法论

Methodologies refer to the overarching, macro-level frameworks that offer principles of reasoning associated with particular paradigmatic assumptions that legitimate various schools of research. Methodologies provide both the strategies and grounding for the conduct of a study. Examples here include scientific method, ethnography and action research.

方法论指的是宏观层面的总体框架，提供与特定范例假设相关的推理原则，这些假设使各种研究流派合法化。方法论为进行研究提供了策略和基础。这里的例子包括科学方法、民族志和行动研究。

Methods 方法

Methods refer to the actual micro-level techniques used to collect and analyse data. Methods of data collection include interviewing, surveying, observation and unobtrusive methods, while methods of analysis comprise quantitative strategies (i.e. statistics) and qualitative strategies (i.e. thematic exploration).

方法指用于收集和分析数据的实际微观技术。数据收集方法包括访谈、调查、观察和不引人注目的方法，而分析方法包括定量策略（即统计）和定性策略（即主题探索）。

Tools 工具

Tools are the devices used in the collection of research data, such as questionnaires, observation checklists and interview schedules.

工具是用于收集研究数据的工具，如问卷、观察清单和访谈计划。

Theoretical approach 理论方法

Theoretical approach draws a general conclusion about the subject being studied, and thereby contributes to the growing body of research in different fields.

理论方法对所研究的主题得出了一般性结论，从而有助于不同领域中不断增长的研究主体。

Applied research approach 应用研究方法

Applied research approach applies the theoretical knowledge that already exists to specific areas of concern, such as in the area of policy, planning, or management.

应用研究方法将已经存在的理论知识应用于特定关注领域，如政策、规划或管理领域。

Empirical research approach 实证研究方法

Empirical research approach involves collecting and analyzing different types of quantitative and qualitative data and examining both primary data collected by the researcher and secondary data obtained from other sources. Such research is designed to obtain data from the everyday world, though commonly the data has a theoretical or non-empirical aspect, too.

实证研究方法包括收集和分析不同类型的定量和定性数据，检查研究者收集的原始数据和从其他来源获得的二手数据。此类研究旨在从日常世界中获取数据，虽然数据通常也有理论或非经验方面。

Inductive approach 归纳法

Inductive approach involves gathering data from observation, describing and analyzing that information, and explaining the results of that analysis.

归纳法包括从观察中收集数据，描述和分析信息，并解释分析结果。

Deductive approach 演绎法

Deductive approach is where the researcher starts with a hypothesis about how something might be expected to act. Then, to test that hypothesis, the researcher makes observations and analyzes these findings to determine if they support the hypothesis or not.

演绎法是研究者从一个假设开始，假设某件事情可能会发生怎样的行为。然后，为了检验这个假设，研究者进行观察并分析这些发现，以确定它们是否支持这个假设。

Descriptive approach 描述性方法

Descriptive approach describes what is, as best the researchers can describe it, such as a pattern of behavior.

描述性方法描述的是研究人员所能描述的最好的东西，例如行为模式。

Explanatory approach 解释方法

Explanatory approach suggests why something has occurred, commonly by showing that one thing caused another to happen. To show this is a real association, not just due to coincidences, the following are required to show a sufficiently high level of connection at the required level of probability: a time priority whereby one thing takes place before another; a nonspurious relationship, whereby the relationship between two variables can’t be explained by a third variable; and a good rationale, which provides a reasonable explanation of why the two variables are related.

解释性方法说明了为什么发生了某件事，通常是通过表明一件事导致了另一件事的发生。为了表明这是一种真正的关联，而不仅仅是由于巧合，在所需的概率水平下，需要以下内容来显示足够高的连接级别：一件事发生在另一件事之前的时间优先级；非纯关系，即两个变量之间的关系不能用第三个变量来解释；这是一个很好的理论基础，它合理地解释了为什么这两个变量是相关的。

Interpretive or inside research approach 实证主义或外部研究方法

Positivist or outside research approach is used to gather facts and observations about the way people behave and draw on theories and models to explain this behavior.

实证主义或外部研究方法用于收集关于人们行为方式的事实和观察，并利用理论和模型来解释这种行为。

Interpretive or inside research 解释性或内部研究方法

Interpretive or inside research approach shows the way the people being studied view their own behavior or situation.

解释性或内部研究方法显示了被研究者对自己行为或情况的看法。

Experimental approach 实验方法

Experimental approach is where the researcher creates an experimental condition that affects the environment or a situation the research subject is experiencing. The researcher then seeks to examine the effects of that condition on the subject, commonly by comparing the subjects in the experimental condition to subjects in a control group who haven’t been affected by that condition.

实验方法是研究者创造一个实验条件，影响研究对象所经历的环境或情况。然后研究者试图检查该条件对研究对象的影响，通常通过比较实验条件下的受试者和未受该条件影响的对照组受试者。

Non-experimental approach 非实验方法

Non-experimental approach is where the researcher looks at any differences which already exist between individuals or groups, rather than trying to manipulate different groups using an experimental method.

非实验方法是研究者观察个体或群体之间已经存在的任何差异，而不是试图用实验方法操纵不同的群体。

Primary data approach 原始数据方法

Primary data approach is based on the researcher collecting new information.

原始数据方法基于研究人员收集新信息。

Secondary data approach 二次数据法

Secondary data approach is based on using existing data, such as when a researcher takes statistics collected by someone else and analyzes them to look for patterns or trends.

二次数据方法基于使用现有数据，例如当研究人员获取其他人收集的统计数据并进行分析以寻找模式或趋势时。

Self-reported data approach 自我报告数据方法

Self-reported data approach is where people make reports about themselves, such as when a researcher asks people what they have done in the past or about their attitudes and goals for the future.

自我报告数据方法是人们对自己进行报告的方法，例如当研究人员询问人们过去做过什么，或者他们对未来的态度和目标时。

Observed data approach 观测数据法

Observed data approach is where the researcher makes observations of what people are actually doing, in contrast to having them self-report what they are doing.

观察数据法是研究者观察人们实际在做什么，而不是让他们自我报告他们在做什么。

Qualitative approach 定性方法

Qualitative approach is an approach to research highly reliant on qualitative data (words, images, experiences and observations that are not quantified). The researcher collects information about a small number of people, using observation, informal and in-depth interviewing, and participant observation. This approach is called ethnographic fieldwork when used to study a group. While this approach was developed by anthropologists, it is commonly used by sociologists.

定性方法是一种高度依赖于定性数据（未量化的文字、图像、经验和观察）的研究方法。研究人员通过观察、非正式深入访谈和参与式观察收集少数人的信息。这种方法用于研究群体时称为人种学田野调查。虽然这种方法是由人类学家开发的，但社会学家普遍使用。

Quantitative approach 定量方法

Quantitative approach is an approach to research highly reliant on quantified data (numerical data as well as concepts we code with numbers). It is based on doing a statistical analysis of data collected from a large number of people, such as from a survey with questions asking for numerical ratings or rankings.

定量方法是一种高度依赖于量化数据（数字数据以及我们用数字编码的概念）的研究方法。它的基础是对从大量人群中收集的数据进行统计分析，比如从一项询问数字评级或排名的调查中收集的数据。

Mixed approach 混合方法

Mixed approach is an approach to research that utilizes both qualitative and quantitative data.

混合方法是一种利用定性和定量数据的研究方法。

ACTIVITY

PAPER B 对才华横溢的期望是跨学科性别分布的基础

Expectations of Brilliance Underlie Gender Distributions Across Academic Disciplines

Sarah-Jane Leslie, Andrei Cimpian, Meredith Meyer & Edward Freeland Department of Philosophy, Princeton University Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Department of Psychology, Otterbein University Survey Research Center, Princeton University

Abstract: The gender imbalance in STEM subjects dominates current debates about women’s underrepresentation in academia. However, women are well represented at the Ph.D. level in some sciences and poorly represented in some humanities (e.g., in 2011, 54% of U.S. Ph.D.’s in molecular biology were women versus only 31% in philosophy). We hypothesize that, across the academic spectrum, women are underrepresented in fields whose practitioners believe that raw, innate talent is the main requirement for success, because women are stereotyped as not possessing such talent. This hypothesis extends to African Americans’ underrepresentation as well, as this group is subject to similar stereotypes. Results from a nationwide survey of academics support our hypothesis (termed the field-specific ability beliefs hypothesis) over three competing hypotheses.

摘要：STEM学科中的性别不平衡是当前学术界关于女性代表性不足的争论的焦点。然而，女性在博士学位上有很好的代表性。在某些科学领域的水平较低，而在某些人文学科的水平较低（例如，2011年，54%的美国分子生物学博士是女性，而在哲学领域只有31%）。我们假设，在整个学术领域，女性在实践者认为原始天赋是成功的主要要求的领域中的代表性不足，因为女性被定型为不具备这种天赋。这一假设也适用于非裔美国人的代表性不足，因为这一群体也受到类似的刻板印象的影响。一项全国性的学者调查结果支持我们的假设（称为领域特定能力信念假设），而不是三个相互竞争的假设。